Uploaded by mkmonu on August 3, Internet Archive's 25th Anniversary Logo. Search icon An illustration of a magnifying glass. User icon An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up Log in. Web icon An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine Texts icon An illustration of an open book. For many poor and nonindustrialized the atmosphere have been steadily increasing since about countries, the problem is too many people and not enough , causing many scientists to conclude that a global food.
For the more developed and industrialized countries, it warming trend has already begun and will result in severe is too many people rapidly depleting both the nonrenewable global climate shifts.
Most computer models based on the and renewable natural resource base. Such a temperature change will be uneven, how- scale. The common thread tying these varied situations to- ever, with the greatest warming occurring in the higher lat- gether is an environmental imbalance caused by a human pop- itudes.
Drier and hotter conditions will inten- warming? As a by-product of respiration and the crease in the amount of valuable crop and grazing lands.
It is predicted that at the cur- increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels relates to its rent rate of glacial melting, sea level will rise 21 cm by the role in the greenhouse effect. This retention of heat is called amount of greenhouse gases has increased, we are still uncer- the greenhouse effect.
The rest is absorbed global warming. Most scientists think that the universe originated about 15 billion years ago in what is popularly called the Big Bang. The Big Bang is a model for the evolution of the universe in Section 1.
Therefore there tion. Without space, there can be no time. As such, car- existed as we know it today? Two fundamental phenomena bon dioxide is an important climate regulator.
How can this problem be approached from a global systems perspective? What are the atmosphere over time due to the greenhouse effect. As a consequence, global weather patterns will shift and the possible consequences of global warming, and can we mean sea level will rise, resulting in environmental really do anything about it? First, the universe is ex- often explosively, the heavier elements that were formed in panding.
When astronomers look beyond our own solar sys- its core are returned to interstellar space and are available for tem, they observe that everywhere in the universe galaxies are inclusion in new stars.
In this way, the composition of the moving away from each other at tremendous speeds. By mea- universe is gradually enhanced in heavier elements. This background radia- consists of the Sun, 9 planets, known moons or satellites tion is thought to be the faint afterglow of the Big Bang. Any theory formulated to explain the combines electricity and magnetism into one force and origin and evolution of our solar system must therefore take binds atoms into molecules , strong nuclear force binds pro- into account its various features and characteristics.
Within this solar nebula were occur? Throughout their life cycle, stars undergo many localized eddies in which gases and solid particles con- nuclear reactions in which lighter elements are converted densed.
During the condensation process, gaseous, liquid, into heavier elements by nuclear fusion. When a star dies, and solid particles began to accrete into ever-larger masses. Pluto Earth Venus Mars Mercury. Asteroid Uranus belt Jupiter Saturn Neptune. The result distances from the embryonic Sun. Asteroids probably formed as planetesimals in a localized eddy between what eventually became Mars and Jupiter in much the same way that other plan- etesimals formed the terrestrial planets.
Comets, which are interplanetary bodies composed of loosely bound rocky and icy material, are thought to have condensed near the orbits of Uranus and Neptune. The the features of the solar system and provides a logical expla- terrestrial planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—so nation for its evolutionary history.
The Some 4. Scientists think that this also named Jove , all have small rocky cores compared to their early Earth was probably cool, of generally uniform com- overall size, and are composed mostly of hydrogen, helium, position and density throughout, and composed mostly of ammonia, and methane, which condense at low temperatures. Subsequently, when the combination.
Crust Mantle. Liquid outer core Solid outer core. At the same time, the lighter silicates with continents and ocean basins. Mountains and hills have been position disappeared and was replaced by a series of worn away by erosion, and the forces of wind, water, and ice concentric layers of differing com position and density, have sculpted a diversity of landscapes. This orderly division results Section 1.
Seismic earthquake data indicate that the pervasive background radiation of 2. Both are thought to consist largely of iron and a small amount of nickel.
It is less dense than the core 3. The collapse formed a counterclockwise- and is thought to be composed largely of peridotite, a dark, rotating disk in which a rotating cloud of gases and par- dense igneous rock containing abundant iron and magnesium.
This material The mantle can be divided into three distinct zones based on eventually condensed into larger bodies and formed the physical characteristics. The lower mantle is solid and forms nine planets of our solar system. Oceanic Continental crust crust. As a Upper mantle result of meteorite impacts, gravitational compression, and Asthenosphere km radius heat from radioactive decay, the temperature of Earth in- Lower mantle creased, which caused its various elements and compounds to form a series of concentric layers of differing composi- tion and density, resulting in a differentiated planet.
Earth is a dynamic planet that has continuously changed during its 4. The outer four planets excluding Pluto, which underwent very different evolutionary histories. The relative sizes of the planets and the Sun.
Distances between planets are not to scale. Jupiter Saturn Mercury Earth Neptune. Venus Mars Pluto Uranus. Venus is surrounded by an oppressively thick atmosphere that com- pletely obscures its surface. The Moon is one-fourth the ranges, and a complex diameter of Earth, has a low density network of faults. Its surface is divided into low-lying dark colored plains and light-colored highlands that are heavily cratered, attesting to a period of massive meteorite bombardment in our solar system more than 4 billion years ago.
Mercury has a heavily cratered surface that has changed very little since its early history. Mars has a thin atmosphere, little water, and distinct seasons.
Its southern hemisphere is heavily cratered like the surfaces of Mercury and the Moon. The northern hemisphere has large, smooth plains, fewer craters, and evidence of extensive volcanism. Jupiter is the largest of the Jovian planets. With its moons, rings, strong magnetic field, and intense radiation belts, Jupiter is the most complex and varied planet in our solar system. Neptune is a dynamic stormy planet with an atmosphere similar to those of the other Jovian planets.
Uranus is the only planet that lies on its side, that is, its axis of rotation nearly parallels the plane of the ecliptic. Some scientists think that a collision with an Earth-sized body early in its history may have knocked Uranus on its side. Like the other Jovian planets, Uranus has a ring system, albeit a faint one.
Partial melting the interior, as shown in this diagrammatic cross section. Oceanic The upper mantle surrounds the Continental lithosphere asthenosphere. Interactions core Mantle of these plates are responsible for Inner such phenomena as earthquakes, core volcanic eruptions, and the for- mation of mountain ranges and ocean basins. Continental crust is thick 20—90 km , has an average density of 2. Oceanic crust is thin 5—10 km , denser than continental crust 3.
The term theory has various meanings. From a theory scientists Section 1. This method is an orderly, logical iron with some nickel, and is divided into a small solid por- approach that involves gathering and analyzing facts or data tion surrounded by an apparently liquid larger portion.
It is divided into a solid ation. Finally, if one of the hypotheses is found, after re- lower portion, followed by a plastically behaving as- peated tests, to explain the phenomena, then the hypothesis thenosphere, and overlain by a solid upper portion. Accordingly, science must proceed without any ap- peal to beliefs or supernatural explanations, not because 1. Zones of volcanic particular importance.
In geology, plate tectonic theory has activity, earthquakes, or both mark most plate boundaries. Plate tectonics has provided a framework for interpret- ing the composition, structure, and internal processes of Section 1.
Philippine San Andreas plate im H. Ar pla plate plate. Fiji plate East Pacific Ris. Tr A e nch Nazca South nd Ch. Indian- plate American ile Trench. Indi ian dg. Continental— continental Continental— Trench Mid-oceanic Divergent convergent oceanic Oceanic— ridge plate plate convergent oceanic boundary boundary plate Divergent convergent boundary plate plate Transform boundary boundary plate boundary.
Upwelling Asthenosphere Upwelling Lithosphere. Plate Tectonics and Earth Systems Solid Earth Plate tectonics is driven by convection in the mantle and in turn drives mountain-building and associated igneous and metamorphic activity. Atmosphere Arrangement of continents affects solar heating and cooling, and thus winds and weather systems. Rapid plate spreading and hot-spot activity may release volcanic carbon dioxide and affect global climate.
Hydrosphere Continental arrangement affects ocean currents. Rate of spreading affects volume of mid-oceanic ridges and hence sea level. Placement of continents may contribute to onset of ice ages.
Biosphere Movement of continents creates corridors or barriers to migration, the creation of ecological niches, and transport of habitats into more or less favorable climates. Paul: West Publishing Co. Sedimentary rocks form in one of three ways: consoli- Section 1. For example, marble, a rock pre- ferred by many sculptors and builders, is a metamorphic 1. Minerals are composed of banded appearance.
Each group con- Some of the sediments and sedimentary rocks on the tains a variety of individual rock types that differ from one descending plate are melted, whereas other sediments and another on the basis of their composition or texture the sedimentary rocks along the boundary of the nondescend- size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains. It relates the three rock groups to each other; to ocean to begin yet another cycle.
Movement along plate boundaries may Igneous rocks result when magma crystallizes or volcanic result in volcanic activity, earthquakes, and in some cases ejecta such as ash accumulate and consolidate.
As magma mountain building. The interaction between the atmos- cools, minerals crystallize, and the resulting rock is charac- phere, hydrosphere, and biosphere contributes to the terized by interlocking mineral grains.
The particles and dissolved materials may be transported by wind, water, Log into GeologyNow and select this chapter to work or ice and eventually deposited as sediment.
Sediments Igneous rocks extrusive. Lava Lithification Compaction and cementation Consolidation. Igneous rocks Metamorphism intrusive.
Metamorphic rocks Crystallization. Section 1. Sediment and sedimentary rock Igneous. A continent has grown and the cycle starts all over again! It is also important to remember that Earth goes 1. Because of their geologic perspective on time and An appreciation of the immensity of geologic time is central how the various Earth subsystems and cycles are interre- to understanding the evolution of Earth and its biota.
In- lated, geologists can make valuable contributions to many deed, time is one of the main aspects that sets geology apart of the current environmental debates, such as those in- from the other sciences, except astronomy.
Most people volving global warming and sea-level changes. The geologic time scale re- hundreds or even thousands of years ago. When geologists sulted from the work of many 19th-century geologists who talk of ancient geologic history, however, they are referring pieced together information from numerous rock expo- to events that happened hundreds of millions or even bil- sures and constructed a chronology based on changes in lions of years ago.
Subsequently, with the discov- those that occurred within the last million years or so. Andrew J. Charles D. Sue Monroe. We should formitarianism, which is based on the premise that pre- keep in mind, however, that uniformitarianism does not ex- sent-day processes have operated throughout geologic time. The cross section shows how the three major rock groups—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary—are recycled through both the continental and oceanic regions. Rocks exposed at the surface are weathered and eroded to produce sediments that are transported and eventually lithified into sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic rocks result from pressure generated along converging plates or adjacent to rising magma. Magma and Upper igneous activity mantle. Melting Continental crust. These are tense in North America 5 to 10 million years ago than it is processes that shape our modern world, and some geologists today, and that glaciation has been more prevalent during view Earth history as a series of such short-term or punctu- the last several million years than in the preceding mil- ated events.
This view is certainly in keeping with the mod- lion years. What uniformitarianism means is that even though the Furthermore, uniformitarianism does not require that rates and intensities of geologic processes have varied dur- the rates and intensities of geologic processes be constant ing the past, the physical and chemical laws of nature have through time.
We know that volcanic activity was more in- remained the same. Although Earth is in a dynamic state of change and has been ever since it formed, the processes that have shaped it during the past are the same ones operating today. As a concerned parent and Earth and its biota. What will be intervals of various duration, with names and numerical your arguments to keep geology as part of the basic body age dates in years assigned to each interval.
Why should students have a working day processes have operated throughout geologic time. It knowledge of geology? What arguments would you expect is one of the cornerstones of geology because it provides from the school board in favor of eliminating geology from us with the basis for interpreting the past and predicting the curriculum, and how will you counter their reasons?
Photographs show characteristic life-forms for the indicated time interval. Dates are from Gradstein, F. Eon Era Period Epoch. Pliocene Neogene. Miocene 5. Oligocene 23 Paleogene. Eocene 34 Neanderthal. Paleocene Cretaceous 66 Mesozoic Phanerozoic. Jurassic Early mammals. Triassic Supply Co. Pennsylvanian Archaeopteryx first bird Dinosaur. Mississippian Paleozoic. Devonian Silurian Cambrian Proterozoic.
Plants Precambrian. The universe began with a Big Bang approximately 15 billion Geology is an integral part of our lives, and natural disasters years ago. The more radiation of 2. Our solar system consists of the Sun, 9 planets, known A system is a combination of related parts, components, or sub- moons, asteroids, comets, meteorites, and interplanetary dust and systems that interact in an organized fashion.
Earth can be gases. The interaction of these subsystems has resulted in a formed. Earth formed from a swirling eddy of nebular material 4.
Geology, the study of Earth, is divided into two broad areas— physical geology the study of Earth materials and historical geol- 1. The mantle, well as political boundaries. The outermost Geology affects all of us when natural disasters occur. Our eco- layer, the crust, is divided into thick continental crust and thin nomic and political well-being depends, in part, on the distribu- oceanic crust.
And government plays an increasingly important role in environmental issues 1. A theory is a testable explanation for some natural phenomenon 1.
Most scientists would argue that overpopulation is the greatest problem facing the world today. Increasingly large numbers of 1. The greenhouse effect is the retention of heat in the atmosphere, they move over the asthenosphere. Plate tectonic theory is a unifying explanation for many geologic Plate movement is the driving mechanism of the rock cycle. Plate features and events, and provides a framework for interpreting interaction determines, to some extent, which of the three rock the composition, structure, and internal processes of Earth on a groups will form.
A rock is an aggregate of minerals. Igneous rocks result from the crystallization of magma or the This principle holds that the laws of nature have been constant consolidation of volcanic ejecta. Sedimentary rocks are typically through time and that the same processes operating today have formed by the consolidation of rock fragments, precipitation of operated in the past, though at different rates. Therefore, to mineral matter from solution, or compaction of plant or animal understand and interpret geologic events from evidence pre- remains.
Why is viewing the Earth as a system a good way to study 6. How does the solar nebula theory account for the formation Earth? Are humans a part of the Earth system?
If so, what of our solar system, its features, and evolutionary history? Why is Earth considered a dynamic planet? What are its 2. What is geology? Why is it important that everyone have a three concentric layers and their characteristics? Why is plate tectonic theory so important to geology? How become geologists? In what ways does geology affect our everyday lives at the 9.
Using plate movement as the driving mechanism of the rock individual, local, and nation-state levels? Why do most scientists think overpopulation is the greatest each rock group can be converted into a different rock environmental problem facing the world today?
Do you group. If not, what do you think is the greatest threat to our Explain how the principle of uniformitarianism allows for existence as a species?
What is the Big Bang? What evidence do we have that the universe began approximately 15 billion years ago?
Review Workbook Discuss why an accurate geologic time scale is particularly im- 2. Based on what you know about landforms and topography, do portant for geologists in examining global temperature you think an understanding of geology would be helpful in changes during the past, and how an understanding of geo- planning a military campaign against another country? What logic time is crucial to the current debate on global warming geologic factors or information would be useful to know?
Can and its consequences. After you have completed your geology course, answer this question again and see whether your an- swer is any different from what it is now. Needle, located behind the Metropolitan Museum of New York in and erected at its present site in What of the geology of the obelisks?
The New York obelisk promised the United States in an obelisk in their inscriptions celebrate the pharaohs of ancient is London obelisk is Suez Canal. The obelisk and its companion, which is Henry Gorridge, a lieutenant commander of the Because of air pollution, the New York obelisk is now in London, were originally erected in front of the U. They were York in The obelisk arrived at the Quarantine on only two sides.
This obelisk, a gift from the Khedive Ismail, shows columns of hieroglyphic Figure 2 inscriptions on its sides. Chemical weathering, resulting from air pollution, has visibly The London obelisk was presented to Britain by the Viceroy of Egypt in and damaged the obelisk. Also note more weathering and damage to the dower portion of erected at its present location on the Victoria Embankment along the Thames River the obelisk.
A t the Climate Treaty Meeting in Kyoto, Japan, a group of nations took the first steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by negotiating a also a cause of increased levels of carbon dioxide.
With a with modifications, based on how successful it is in dustrialized nations to reduce their emissions by an decrease in the global vegetation cover, less carbon reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions. Although this might not seem like synthesis, and carbon dioxide levels can increase. It jobs. According to the United States, the Kyoto Pro- of all human-produced carbon emissions. Furthermore, the economic im- greenhouse gas producer , from having to reduce levels, and the European Union and Japan pact would not be spread evenly throughout the their pollution.
The greenhouse gases that must be re- on many industries, particularly those that produce Brazil, and India, are already concerned that if the duced are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and use large quantities of energy.
Thus the possible protocol is extended beyond , their economies hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur benefits to be gained by reducing greenhouse gas may suffer when they must comply with emissions hexafluoride. It was also agreed that further reduc- emissions must be weighed against the possible reductions. One hundred forty nations that produce global economy. Research indicates that the defor- ratified the Kyoto Protocol and pledged to reduce many variables contributing to its evolution over a estation of large areas, particularly in the tropics, is overall emissions by an average of 5.
Figure 1 The scene of smokestacks at an oil refinery serves to focus on some of the issues relating to the recently ratified Kyoto Protocol and the debate concerning global warming. All industrial activity pollutes the environment to some extent, and the debate is, in part, how much human pollution is contributing to global warming.
By requiring nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, particularly those that produce and use large quantities of energy, it is hoped that such reductions will lessen the rate of global warming and its consequences. However, several industrialized as well as developing countries have refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol because of the perceived potentially crippling effects it may have on their economies.
Only time will tell whether the Kyoto Protocol is successful in stemming the increasing levels of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from industrialization. A lthough Sherlock Holmes, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, is probably the best-known detec- tive in the world, many people would be surprised to 15, According to her testimony, his wife, Jane, had returned to their hunting camp to find that John had been shot three times.
From the beginning, no outside analyses of core samples at the mine were allowed. Only the analyses performed know that he also was a forensic geologist of sorts.
He naturally became a prime public. Furthermore, standard practices of core duced to Sherlock Holmes by his future biographer suspect, but he reported that he had been hunting analysis were not followed. Typically, a core is cut and companion, Dr. John H. Soon after with his boss far from the camp when the shooting lengthwise and half the sample is analyzed, leaving moving into B Baker Street, Dr.
Watson was still occurred, and furthermore someone had stolen his the other half as a backup to verify the initial results trying to figure out just what Sherlock Holmes did for. In the case of Bre-X, the a living. He knew Holmes was very knowledgeable in tent while he was hunting. Thus, no material was available for inde- politics he appeared to know next to nothing.
Only when another company Mountains, provided critical geologic evidence that led cording to Dr. Tells at ernment to run the mine drilled its own test holes. After walks was the fraud discovered. Test results showed that has shown me splashes upon his trousers, and told the original samples had been salted with gold dust me by their colour and consistence in what part of from elsewhere.
If standard procedures had been London he had received them. The collapse of Bre-X is and author, has written 10 mysteries featuring fic- one of the largest stock scandals in Canadian his- tional forensic geologist Em Hansen, who uses her tory, and it resulted in numerous lawsuits from in- knowledge of geology to solve mysteries and crimes. Do real-life forensic geologists exist, or are they only A field related to forensic geology is forensic fictional characters?
The answer is yes; they exist and palynology, which is the study of pollen and spores are employed in a number of public and private labo- to help solve criminal cases. Pollen is the micro- ratories in the United States as well as many other scopic grains produced by the male element of a countries.
In fact, the Federal Bureau of Investigation flowering plant; it is what causes allergy sufferers laboratory in Quantico, Virginia, employs several geol- A cattle pond near the campsite of J. Lee pro- so much discomfort.
The pond was lined with bentonite, a clay not ages, letters, antiques, and drugs; and corroborate sociated with various crimes and disasters. Forensic palynologists Mineralogy Subunit, tests can be done on virtually all seeping out of the bottom of the pond. In her initial generally work as independent consultants or for naturally occurring geologic materials such as miner- statement to the police, Jane reported that she had private laboratories. In addition, human- stepped into a mud bog near her camp and had re- Despite its potential, forensic palynology is still made products like glass, abrasives, and building moved her coveralls, which were caked with mud.
An example of how materials are analyzed because these products are Investigators tested the mud from the cattle pond palynology can be useful is a case worked on by Dr. The Science at the University of Western Australia. Dur- What do forensic geologists do? To help the police narrow down their search place, and even what the cause of the incident was the same caliber as a shell casing and bullet found area, Dr.
Milne collected pollen and other samples or who might be responsible. A solid grounding in the near the body was stolen. A jury later convicted Jane from slits in the shoe soles the rapist had allegedly geologic sciences is essential, and a forensic geolo- Dodson of the murder of her husband, and she is left near the scene of an assault in According samples is very common in the chaff-cutting busi- clothing, the identification of soil found on a victim to company releases in , the reserves were es- nesses located near a particular town in Western or suspect is probably the most common type of timated to be million ounces of gold approxi- Australia.
Because this industry employs itinerant forensic geology practiced. Unfortunately, very little gold and several weeks later arrested a suspect who con- ing used to help solve a case. Though not directly A good example involved the apparent acciden- Bre-X collapsed in T he greenhouse effect, global warming, climate change: These headlines and topics are in the news all the time, global issues that affect us all and You may recall that we talked about the green- house effect and its relationship to global warming.
This fect you? Are they something that you should really lower atmosphere and not radiated back into space, increase will result in widely varying regional re- be concerned about?
Expect to see more hot days must deal with, not to mention your personal life. There will also be increased today. So what about global warming and you? Based on many studies using a variety of tech- precipitation during the 21st century, particularly in niques, it is clear that carbon dioxide the northern middle to high latitudes. And the glaciers Figure 1 a Map showing the location of the Maldives Islands in the Indian one of the greenhouse gases that allows and ice caps will continue to retreat, with a decrease Ocean.
There will also be an increased risk the 19th century. Furthermore, global of wildfires. Deadly heat waves will result in more surface temperatures have increased heat-related deaths, such as occurred in Europe about 0. As climates change, about 0. Disease-carrying mos- been uniform around the globe, and quitoes will extend their reach as climate changes some areas, such as the southwestern allow them to survive in formerly inhospitable re- part of the United States, have actually gions.
Higher temperatures will affect regional water cooled during this time period. Just trends. For example, there is compelling as many regions will experience longer and hotter evidence of climate variability or extremes summers, other areas will suffer from intense and on a regional scale, but on a global scale, increased rainfall, which will result in severe floods there is currently little evidence of a sus- and landslides.
However, whether these climate changes are nificant environmental, ecological, and part of a natural global cycle taking place over thou- economic effects. For starters, human activities is immaterial.
The bottom line is there is the problem of rising sea level. What this means is that low-lying coastal areas will expe- rience flooding and increased erosion along the coastline, endangering housing and communities. Furthermore, many major cities are just above sea level and could also suffer from rising sea level. The Struggle toward Scientific Progress —A. Fur- thermore, the formation and distribution of many geologic Imagine it is the day after Christmas, December 26, , resources, such as metal ores, are related to plate tectonic and you are vacationing on a beautiful beach in Thailand.
Yet tsunami will sweep over your resort and everything in its plate tectonics affects all of us. Volcanic eruptions, earth- path for several kilometers inland. Within hours, the coasts quakes, and tsunami are the result of interactions between of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Somalia, Myan- plates.
More than , people will ocean basins. The formation and distribution of many nat- die, and billions of dollars in damage will be wreaked on the ural resources are related to plate movement and thus have region. It is therefore important to understand this from an earthquake awakened hundreds of thousands of unifying theory, not only because it affects us as individuals people in the Bam area of southeastern Iran.
When the and as citizens of nation-states but also because it ties to- magnitude Section 2. Fortunately, in this case, warnings of an impending many economically valuable natural resources.
When two plates come together, one plate is pushed geography? The earliest maps showing the east coast of Pakistan in Being less During the late 19th century, the Austrian geologist dense than the surrounding material, the magma rises to- Edward Suess noted the similarities between the Late ward the surface, where it may erupt as a volcano such as Paleozoic plant fossils of India, Australia, South Africa, Mount Pinatubo did in and others have since. It there- and South America as well as evidence of glaciation in the fore should not be surprising that the distribution of volca- rock sequences of these southern continents.
The plant noes and earthquakes closely follows plate boundaries. The presence by gigantic tidal forces. According to Taylor, these tidal of these fossil plants on continents with widely varying climates today is evidence that the continents were at one time connected.
Courtesy of Patricia G. Suess thought these southern conti- continental movement in a series of maps showing the nents were at one time connected by land bridges over breakup of Pangaea and the movement of the various conti- which plants and animals migrated.
Thus, in his view, the nents to their present-day locations. Wegener amassed a similarities of fossils on these continents were due to the tremendous amount of geologic, paleontologic, and clima- appearance and disappearance of the connecting land tologic evidence in support of continental drift, but the ini- bridges.
He explained the formation of mountain ranges as a spread in North America after , when the American result of the lateral movement of continents. This ground-breaking, visually spectacular book was designed from cognitive and educational research on how students think, learn, and study.
Nearly all information in the book is built around 2, photographs and stunning illustrations, rather than being in long blocks of text that are not articulated with figures. These annotated illustrations help students visualize geologic processes and concepts, and are suited to the way most instructors already teach. To alleviate cognitive load and help students focus on one important geologic process or concept at a time, the book consists entirely of two-page spreads organized into 19 chapters.
Each two-page spread is a self-contained block of information about a specific topic, emphasizing geologic concepts, processes, features, and approaches. These spreads help students learn and organize geologic knowledge in a new and exciting way. Inquiry is embedded throughout the book, modeling how geologists investigate problems. The title of each two-page spread and topic heading is a question intended to get readers to think about the topic and become interested and motivated to explore the two-page spread for answers.
Each chapter is a learning cycle, which begins with a visually engaging two-page spread about a compelling geologic issue. Each chapter ends with an Investigation that challenges students with a problem associated with a virtual place. The world-class media, spectacular presentations, and assessments are all tightly articulated with the textbook. This book is designed to encourage students to observe, interpret, think critically, and engage in authentic inquiry, and is highly acclaimed by reviewers, instructors, and students.
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